Human-Animal Bond

Animal-Assisted Interventions: Entering a Crossroads of Explaining an Instinctive Bail nether the Scrutiny of Scientific Inquiry

A.H. Fine , T.One thousand. Mackintosh , in Encyclopedia of Mental Health (Second Edition), 2016

Mechanisms and Methods of Creature-Assisted Therapy

While the human–animal bond helps found a relationship between the patient and therapy animal, further elaboration is needed to sympathize why this human relationship may be therapeutic. Many of the mechanisms behind AAT focus on inherent characteristics and behaviors of the animal (Kruger and Serpell, 2010). In other words, the mere presence of the creature in the therapeutic context may heighten the treatment procedure, but does non, withal, diminish the importance of the therapist's abilities. The clinician must work in tandem with the therapy brute to reach the optimal therapeutic outcome. In many cases, the fauna serves every bit motivation for the patient to comply with the therapeutic plan. For example, Lange et al. (2006/2007) found that when dogs were included in a therapy program for adolescent anger management, the patients were more motivated to stay engaged in the program. Working with animals is fun and novel for many patients, which helps them remain invested in the intervention.

This increase in motivation transfers to the patient's engagement with the therapist. Perhaps the about common apply of therapy animals is equally a social goad (Fine, 2014). The fauna's calming presence reduces anxiety and arousal, and consequently eases interactions between client and therapist. The client will often feel more than comfortable discussing difficult and emotional subjects in the presence of a therapy brute. The animal also seems to aid the rapport-building process by increasing the social desirability of the therapist. Several studies accept shown that a person is perceived every bit friendlier, happier, and more relaxed when they have an fauna past their side (Lockwood, 1983; Rossbach and Wilson, 1992; Wells and Perrine, 2001). Melson and Fine (2010) suggest that the presence of the animal seems to allow the therapist to exist viewed in a more nonthreatening manner by his/her patients. Additionally, they report that, specially with children, the interaction with the therapy animal allows the therapist to go under the radar of the client's defence mechanisms. Therapists may further stimulate discussion by pairing the patient with an animal which has experienced like struggles. For example, a patient who has been physically driveling may relate to a dog that as well had an abusive by. In keeping with psychoanalytic theory, reticent patients may be able to share their thoughts, feelings, and emotions past projecting them onto the fauna (Kruger and Serpell, 2010).

In some cases, the therapy animal may play a more agile role in initiating cerebral and behavioral changes. Cerebral-behavioral therapy (CBT) is founded on the thought that a person's cognitions, behaviors, and environs are intertwined. This form of therapy aims to generate positive changes in a person's self-perceptions that can amend overall well-being. AAT can be complementary to CBT, every bit information technology is also oftentimes aimed at enhancing areas of self-perception, such as cocky-esteem and 'self-efficacy,' the conventionalities in one'due south ability to execute behaviors and attain goals (Kruger and Serpell, 2010). Qualitative literature (e.chiliad., Bizub et al., 2003; Chardonnens, 2009; Froeschle, 2009) has reported participants' expressions of heightened self-efficacy, coping abilities, self-esteem, and social conviction following interaction with animals. The animate being provides a sense of unconditional positive regard, makes the patient feel important, and helps combat feelings of helplessness past giving the patient a sense of control.

Therapy animals tin can also help shape the patient's social interactions. Dogs, in particular, take a natural ability to sympathise our beliefs. Horowitz (2009) suggests that dogs are predisposed to observing our facial cues for disquisitional data. Their discernment of homo beliefs coupled with their unique ability to provide honest and immediate social feedback can help people understand the consequences of their deportment and develop adaptive social behaviors. These therapeutic methods described incorporate animals in a more traditional sense; notwithstanding, the reader is urged to refer to books such as The Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (Fine, 2010), where other techniques and unique methods are explained in more detail.

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Designing and implementing beast-assisted therapy programs in health and mental health organizations

Gerald P. Mallon , ... Lisa Ross , in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (Tertiary Edition), 2010

viii.5.2 Client issues

Although information technology has been written that the human/animal bond is universal (Mallon, 1992; Senter, 1993, p. 1), the reality is that not all people like animals. Some clients may be allergic to specific animals, some may have a phobia well-nigh a detail beast, and others may just not accept had positive experiences with animals. At Greenish Chimneys many of these issues are immediately addressed at intake, when the client commencement arrives for services. Clients are screened for allergies and asked about fears or dislikes for detail animals. Information technology should be noted that in that location is evidence that youngsters with pets are less probable to develop allergies. At Green Chimneys we have a loftier number of children diagnosed with asthma but we have not had whatever child hospitalized as a upshot of an asthma attack. The allergy data is integrated into the customer's initial prospective treatment plan. Although Green Chimneys would similar all of its clients to have a positive experience with animals, the organization respects the fact that not all children respond the same way to beast-assisted approaches to handling.

Another means for assessing patient satisfaction or dissatisfaction is to bear a survey of the clients' likes and dislikes almost their treatment. This is more or less standard practice in most wellness and mental health organizations in today's managed intendance surround. A customer-focused survey soliciting patient response toward animals is an of import place to begin the process. In addition, it may exist important to do a thorough assessment of any history of animal corruption. Most surveys to children, families and staff give approval to animals, working at the farm and gardening.

Concern for the physical well-beingness of the clients is a major priority in health and mental health care-related organizations. Cleanliness, infection command, and risk of illness related to zoonotic conditions claim a central focus in most health and mental wellness care systems. Organizations interested in adopting an AAT arroyo must research federal, land, and local regulations early on in the planning process to consider possible limitations for such an intervention. Information technology tin be very disappointing for those interested in designing an AAT program to discover that rigid local health laws prohibit such techniques.

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Understanding our kinship with animals

Aubrey H. Fine , Alan Beck , in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (Tertiary Edition), 2010

ane.3 Defining the homo/animal bond

Turner (2007) points out that the man/animal bail is a well-documented phenomenon that has been around since humans began domesticating animals. The forcefulness of the homo/animal connectedness allowed companion animals to quickly adopt roles equally members of the family. Chandler (2001), Serpell (1996) and Flom (2005) have documented that the power of the man/animate being bond has been described in sources as diverse equally ancient literature, modern fiction, and enquiry reports in the professional literature. All take pointed out there is something extraordinary about our relationships, which are quite dissimilar than conventional human relationships. Ian Robinson (1995) highlights the clan betwixt people and animals and provides some insights into these relationships. He suggested that the more similar the social organisation and communication systems are of the two species, the more likely that each will sympathise the other improve. He ends his essay past suggesting that our relationships with other species fulfill human needs that are beyond uncomplicated economic needs.

Konrad Lorenz (the famous ethologist), Boris Levinson (a psychotherapist who is considered past many as the father of animal-assisted therapy) and Leo Bustad (founder of the Delta Society) were perhaps the three near influential people who pioneered the term the man/animate being bond. Lorenz in one case stated that the wish to go on an animal usually arises from a full general longing for a bond with nature. The bond with a true domestic dog is as lasting as the ties of this world tin can ever exist. Bustad (1983) extended this quote by stating that this bail is similar to human being functions that go manus in hand with the emotions of love and friendship in the purest and noblest forms. Beck (1999) noted that the term "bond" was borrowed from the terminology linked to the relationship cherished by parents and their children.

Although the term seems simplistic to understand, Davis and Balfour (1992) claim that there is no universally accepted definition of human/creature bail. This lack of agreement was also suggested in the writings of Bayne (2002). Although there does not seem to be universal understanding within the definition, several researchers accept identified a few common specific ingredients. Tannenbaum (1995) suggested that the relationship needs to exist of a continuous nature and must be bi-directional. Furthermore, he points out that the relationships should exist voluntary. Russow (2002) also suggested that the human relationship needs to be reciprocal and persistent. She explains that there is no true bond if the animal does not recognize you lot. She also suggests that the relationship involves increased trust on the beast's behalf and increased caring and understanding of the animal's needs on the function of the human being. In her article, as well every bit others including Beck (1999), the authors all seem to highlight the mutual benefit of the bail that promotes an increment in the well-existence for both parties.

Bonding is the forming of close, specialized human relationships, such as the link betwixt parent and child, married man and wife, friend and friend. Many of these relationships are recognized by behaviors understood past all involved. Similar behaviors, often in similar settings, are seen in animals, particularly birds and mammals, and we often use the aforementioned term—"bonding." Domesticated animals are invariably social species that exhibit social interaction and "bonding-like" behaviors among themselves. The humane community adopted the term considering they wanted to capture the spirit and connotation of the "baby/parent bail." Those who care about animals desire to imply that the relationship is salubrious and natural. While some argue that the bail with animals does not emulate all the psychological implications of human/human bonding, the general public uses the term both in its literal meaning and equally a metaphor for the many roles animals play in our lives.

Finally, the American Veterinary Medical Association's Committee on the Human being-Animal Bail defines the human/brute bond as, "a mutually beneficial and dynamic relationship between people and other animals that is influenced by behaviors that are essential to the wellness and well-being of both. This includes, but is not limited to, emotional, psychological, and physical interactions of people, other animals, and the surroundings" (JAVMA, 1998).

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The Part of Human-Brute Interaction in Child and Boyish Health and Development

Camie A. Tomlinson , ... Nancy R. Gee , in Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, 2021

Types of animal-assisted intervention

Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) capitalize on the human-creature bond and involve animals to promote enhanced therapeutic outcomes within three specific categories of interventions: animal-assisted therapy (AAT), animate being-assisted instruction (AAE), and animal-assisted activities (AAA; Fine and Beck, 2015; Fine and Mackintosh, 2016; International Association of Human being-Fauna Interaction Organizations [IAHAIO], 2015). AAT involves animals in a goal-oriented, structured intervention plan aimed at enhancing the services provided past a formally trained professional (e.g., health professional, therapist) and improving the biopsychosocial functioning of the individual receiving services (Fine and Mackintosh, 2016; International Association of Human-Fauna Interaction Organizations [IAHAIO], 2015). Similarly to AAT, AAE involves animals in an educational setting inside a goal-oriented, structured intervention plan to enhance learning outcomes (e.g., fauna-assisted reading intervention). AAA is less structured and is notably unlike from AAT and AAE due to the lack of a specific intervention plan. Often, AAA is provided past teams of people who are specifically trained to provide AAA, and they may piece of work with allied professionals (e.m., medical providers) to target specific goals. The main purpose of AAA is to provide recreational, educational, and therapeutic benefits through the interactions with the animals (Fine and Mackintosh, 2016; IAHAIO, 2015).

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Human being/creature support services

Jane Irene Kelly , ... Lori Popejoy , in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (Tertiary Edition), 2010

17.x VET SOS: homeless people and pets

The initial San Francisco community'due south response to the AIDS pandemic helped lead to the development of the human/animal support service (HASS) movement and development of pet-associated zoonoses education. Although originally focused on individuals living with HIV/AIDS, the San Francisco PAWS model has shown to exist effective for other populations. Indeed, PAWS now provides services to low-income individuals with all disabilities and the elderly. And PAWS' initial didactics efforts were ever focused on all compromising immune disorders, including HIV.

In improver to reaching out to other communities to develop their own HASS models, PAWS indirectly prompted the development of Veterinary Street Outreach Services (VET SOS), which helps the human being homeless population in San Francisco and their fauna companions.

Based on an thought of a formerly homeless PAWS client, San Francisco Customs Dispensary Consortium (SFCCC)'s Street Outreach Services (SOS) program partnered in 2001 with sometime PAWS lath president and volunteer veterinary, Ilana Strubel, DVM, and 4 highly respected San Francisco-based fauna welfare agencies to brainstorm offer veterinary care once a month to homeless animals as a mode to reach out to their homeless pet guardians.

The projection, at present called Veterinary Street Outreach Services (VET SOS), currently serves more than 900 homeless animals in San Francisco annually and links over 250 homeless pet guardians to homo wellness services.

VET SOS provides critically needed quality veterinary care straight to companion animals of homeless people in San Francisco. The VET SOS team provides health intendance information and referrals to homeless individuals as well as free basic veterinary care and vaccinations for their pets; arranges spay/neuter surgeries for companion animals at no cost; educates homeless pet owners about animal wellness and responsible pet ownership; and distributes medications, pet food and supplies, including collars and leashes.

The goals of VET SOS are to improve the health of homeless San Franciscans and their companion animals, decrease the spread of infectious and zoonotic diseases, reduce pet overpopulation, foster the human/animal bond, provide human health intendance information and referrals, and champion the welfare of homeless pet guardians and their companion animals.

VET SOS services are provided by volunteer veterinarians, veterinarian technicians, and outreach workers through the use of a particularly equipped mobile outreach van (Figure 17.2 and Table 17.xi). The van carries veterinary vaccinations, medications, medical charts, animal nutrient, leashes, collars, halters, and other necessary supplies that are dispensed on-site by volunteers. VET SOS visits select areas of San Francisco once or twice monthly and provides its services at the urban center of San Francisco'southward six annual Project Homeless Connect events.

Effigy 17.2. VET SOS outreach van at San Francisco'southward Project Homeless Connect Event.

 Photo credit: Mark Roger's Photography

Table 17.eleven. VET SOS 2009 service statistics

During 2009, VET SOS increased past 41% its free services to the companion animals of homeless San Franciscans and their humans:
905 animals received urgent and preventive veterinarian intendance
65 animals were tested on-site for infectious diseases
661 animals received vaccinations
415 animals received medication
102 animals were spayed/neutered
eight animals received emergency medical ship and care
900 animals received food and/or pet supplies
378 animals received flea and tick preventive medication
124 animals received microchips
269 homeless San Franciscans with companion animals received man health referrals

17.x.1 Why VET SOS?

There are many studies documenting the health benefits of the human being/animal bail. Studies in "vulnerable" populations demonstrate that these benefits are especially pronounced when subjects face life challenges including bereavement, concrete inability, poor social support system, and homelessness.

Homeless individuals often face multiple life challenges and are especially vulnerable; their pets serve as a meaning source of support (Figure 17.3). Ii studies performed in California demonstrate the great demand for activities supporting the man/animal bond in homeless families. In one, performed in Oakland, 74% of homeless men and 48% of homeless women with pets reported that "pets were their only source of companionship and love," and 67% of pet owners said people treated them better than homeless individuals without pets (Kidd and Kidd, 1994). However, in the same study, the bulk of subjects said finding veterinary care and feeding their pets were issues. And most feed their pets before feeding themselves.

Figure 17.3. VET SOS client holds his beloved brute companion shut during a veterinary exam.

 Photograph credit: Mark Roger's Photography

In another written report performed in Davis, homeless pet owners were found to be significantly more attached to their pets than a standard pet owner population. They also had low and hopelessness scores equal to "normal" scores despite homelessness, suggesting a possible protective role for pets (Vocaliser et al., 1995).

In a report performed in Texas that evaluated strategies for coping with loneliness among homeless adolescents, 40% of homeless youth interviewed said that having a dog was a main means of warding off loneliness. Information technology was determined that pet dogs provided unconditional love, improved health status, and increased the desire for jobs and responsibleness (Rew, 2000).

VET SOS recognizes that keeping pets of homeless people healthy besides sustains the concrete and mental well-being of their human being guardians. Often, these pets serve as a sole source of emotional back up, promote responsibleness, and act as social catalysts for interactions with other people. Past combining the efforts of animal health care providers and human health care providers to reach out to this often-wary population, VET SOS builds trust, enabling further outreach and education.

Supporting the human/animate being bail in homeless families also promotes public health. In improver, by ensuring all companion animals are altered, VET SOS helps to decrease pet overpopulation in San Francisco. By providing vaccines, parasite prevention, and routine veterinary care, VET SOS reduces the spread of infectious disease. By distributing pet food, VET SOS reduces the amount of homo food fed to pets and increases the amount of food bachelor for their human guardians.

The city of San Francisco is struggling with one of the highest number of homeless persons in the country. The 2008 homeless count estimated that in that location were approximately 6,514 homeless people inside city limits at whatsoever given time. Of this effigy, 2,709 were considered "unsheltered" (e.g. sleeping on the street). By offering care to the companion animals of San Franciscans challenged past homelessness, VET SOS offers an additional ways for the SOS program to reach out to this population in need.

Many clients who are reluctant to seek care for themselves volition seek intendance for their companion animals, which creates a point of entry for the SOS team to offering its services to the homeless. The project has been very successful in getting homeless clients linked with needed health and social services, which is the first step to turning their lives around and becoming productive citizens.

VET SOS serves every bit a model, offering training opportunities to ensure that hereafter veterinarians, vet techs, non-profit workers, and homo wellness care providers accept the practical skills to support homeless families. Equally important, however, is the experience of being part of a collaboration that recognizes the integral connection between human being and animal health, the importance of giving dorsum to the community, the support provided to the customs's most vulnerable members, and the feelings of empathy and awareness that all these things engender. VET SOS is operated by a human wellness care private not-for-profit agency, San Francisco Community Clinic Consortium (SFCCC), in collaboration with 4 highly respected fauna welfare agencies: Pets Are Wonderful Back up (PAWS), San Francisco Department of Animate being Intendance and Command (SF/ACC), San Francisco Club for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SF/SPCA) and Pets Unlimited. VET SOS is also supported with funds and by veterinary community volunteers from the San Francisco Veterinary Medical Association.

San Francisco, the urban center of St. Francis, has been a pioneer and leader with animal and human support services. Over the past 25 years, a generous and giving community fabricated upwardly of volunteers, sponsors, not-for-profit organizations, government agencies and businesses has worked together to promote services for both people and pets. Together, San Francisco organizations, volunteers and donors continue to benefit needy and vulnerable beast guardians and their animate being companions in their community. Other communities tin use the San Francisco model as a template for improving their ain HASS and Companion Animal Back up Services (CASS) facilities.

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Psychosocial and Therapeutic Aspects of Man-Animal Interaction

Rebecca A. Johnson , in Man-Animal Medicine, 2010

Homo-ANIMAL INTERACTION: Animal-ASSISTED ACTIVITY, ANIMAL-ASSISTED THERAPY, AND SERVICE DOGS DEFINED

Human-animal interaction (HAI) is the term used to encompass the human-animal bonds developing from pet ownership, uses of animals for recreation (such as horseback riding), animal husbandry, and therapeutic settings. Perhaps the first therapeutic use of animals was Florence Nightingale'southward introduction of birds as distractions for hospital patients in the mid-1800s. The practice of facilitating HAI for therapeutic purposes has expanded in recent years, in accelerate of consistent research-based prove supporting the health benefits of HAI. Today, HAI is used in countless clinical settings and is generally believed to amend patient outcomes.

Beast-assisted action (AAA) refers to relatively brief visits (normally lasting upwardly to 1 60 minutes) occurring in a variety of settings in which people talk to, pet, groom, offering treats to, and/or play with companion animals with the beast's human being handler present.

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) refers to structured encounters in which the animal with its handler becomes part of a treatment plan for a particular patient. In this instance, the patient may walk with, reach out to, groom, or engage in various games with the brute, with all such activities designed to address detail functional deficits in the person. These activities may be included as goals in the patient'due south plan of intendance. Thus the animate being becomes an instrument through which a patient's progress may exist measured (due east.g., a patient goal may be to daily increment the number of strokes brushing the dog using an dumb hand or arm). The most common situations in which AAT is used are in cerebrovascular accident or traumatic brain injury rehabilitation or in various behavioral and other psychotherapy contexts, such equally with depressed adults, children who accept been abused, or those with autism spectrum disorder.

As Box five-ane demonstrates, service dogs (Figure 5-2) are currently used in long-term patient-animal relationships for a multifariousness of health care settings, both in institutional and home-based intendance.

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Infectious disease Scenarios

Peter Thou. Rabinowitz , Lisa A. Conti , in Human-Brute Medicine, 2010

Case Study one

A public wellness veterinarian working as an AIDS surveillance coordinator received a number of questions for which the human-brute bail was never more poignant. Indeed, one was from a gentleman who was recently diagnosed with AIDS and who owned a 4-year-one-time neutered male Golden Retriever. His family practitioner, concerned near any increased chance for opportunistic infections, advised him to find some other home for his beloved pet. This human being was heartbroken, trying to get together as much information as possible about what specifically he would face if he ignored his doc'south advice. Fortunately, with his permission, the veterinarian was able to contact his physician to discuss the relatively low hazard equally well as the benefits of owning a healthy pet (one that was receiving regular veterinary care) and encouraged the doctor to continue to contact public health practitioners for information as well as this pet owner's veterinarian (with permission) nigh the animate being's preventive wellness intendance. Additionally, this pet owner happened to live in an area with an active volunteer organization that assisted with walking and feeding pets of persons living with AIDS. Armed with these resources, the patient was able to maintain a healthy pet.

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The future of research, didactics and clinical practice in the animal/human being bond and animal-assisted therapy

Dennis C. Turner , ... Jeffery Scott Mio , in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (3rd Edition), 2010

26.1 Introduction

As pointed out over 25 years agone (Turner, 1984), the multidisciplinary fields of human/animal relations 1 and animal-assisted therapy (AAT) lacked quantitative, controlled observations on behavior and interactions between owners and their pets and between patients and therapy animals. Without intending to belittle the importance of other disciplines involved or interested in this field, the role that ethology has, and could go on to play in inquiry and education on the human/animal relationship and AAT should not be underestimated.

"Ethology" tin can exist defined as the observational, often comparative report of fauna and/or human behavior. While in the long run, ethologists are mostly concerned with the biological basis of behavior, their methods and results are non without consequences for the applied fields of man/animate being interaction and AAT. Equally a significant example, one may consider the early on studies on dog and true cat socialization toward conspecifics and humans (for an splendid summary, come across McCune et al., 1995): both species exhibit a sensitive phase of socialization early in life, during which contacts with members of their own species and/or other species (including humans) influence the social inclinations of individuals for the balance of their lives. In dogs, this sensitive stage occurs from four to 10 or 12 weeks of age depending on the author (see Serpell and Jagoe, 1995), in cats from 2 to viii (towards humans) or x weeks of age (toward conspecifics) (Karsh and Turner, 1988; Schaer, 1989; Turner, 2000a). Certainly in cats (Hediger, 1988), probably as well in dogs (Reichlin, 1994), socialization can take identify simultaneously and independently toward members of the same species and toward humans. That dogs and cats involved in visitation and residential therapy programs are socialized toward both is of crucial importance for both risk direction and outcomes, not to mention the welfare of the animals themselves (Hubrecht and Turner, 1998; Turner, 2005a).

Animal welfare laws in many countries require that animals exist housed and treated in such a style that all of their species-specific needs can be satisfied and that they are not subjected to stress or pain. Therapy animals are no exception. Regarding behavioral and psychosocial needs, ethological studies provide the necessary background information (Rochlitz, 2005a; Turner, 1995a, 2005b); regarding stress and hurting abstention, studies from both ethology and veterinary medicine (e.yard. Broom and Johnson, 1993; Casey and Bradshaw, 2005; Haubenhofer et al., 2005; Haubenhofer and Kirchengast, 2006) are usually the sources of factual data. Hubrecht and Turner (1998), for dogs and cats, and Rochlitz (2005b), for cats, have provided the most recent reviews on companion animal welfare in private and institutional settings, only more work is needed in this expanse. The International Association of Human-Animal Interaction Organizations, IAHAIO, has emphasized the importance of the welfare of therapy animals in its "IAHAIO Prague Guidelines on Animal-Assisted Activities and Animal-Assisted Therapy." 2

At that place accept been relatively few ethological studies of the interactions between pets and people, nigh of these on cats and many from the enquiry team surrounding the author (Bradshaw and Cameron-Beaumont, 2000; Cook and Bradshaw, 1996; Day et al., 2009; Goodwin and Bradshaw, 1996, 1997, 1998; McCune et al., 1995; Meier and Turner, 1985; Mertens, 1991; Mertens and Turner, 1988; Rieger and Turner, 1999; Turner, 1991, 1995b, 2000b; Turner and Rieger, 2001; Turner et al., 1986, 2003). These accept provided data on: the "mechanics" of human being/cat interactions; differences between interactions involving men, women, boys and girls and involving elderly persons vs. younger adults; differences in interactions between several breeds of cats; and the influence of housing conditions on such interactions. Many of these results (should) have consequences for animal visitation and (especially psycho-) therapy programs.

As appropriate in any interdisciplinary field, advances in our cognition about the man/animate being relationship and its therapeutic value can as well be secured past combining the methods and results of other disciplines with those of ethology. James Serpell (1983) was the offset researcher to consider aspects of a companion brute's beliefs in the interpretation of results from a not-ethological study of the human/dog relationship. He found associations betwixt possessor affection towards the dog and such dog behavior and character traits every bit welcoming behavior, attentiveness, expressiveness and sensitivity. Over the years, Turner and his research squad have borrowed and expanded upon the methodology of Serpell's kickoff study to examine the ethology and psychology of human/cat relationships (Kannchen and Turner, 1998; Rieger and Turner, 1999; Stammbach and Turner, 1999; Turner, 1991, 1995b, 2000b, 2002; Turner and Rieger, 2001; Turner and Stammbach-Geering, 1990; Turner et al., 2003). Most recently, Kotrschal et al. (2009) accept combined ethological observations of interactions betwixt dogs, respectively cats (Kotrschal, pers. advice), and their owners with personality assessments of their owners and of the animals and discovered many interesting interactions betwixt the 2. These types of studies accept many consequences for therapeutic work with animals but their potential has not yet been exploited.

What accept ethological studies of human/animal interactions and relationships provided u.s. so far? A few examples, based upon the literature cited above, are called for.

From the cat research grouping of Turner, we now know that: domestic cats evidence no spontaneous preference for a particular age/sex form of potential human partners, merely indeed react to differences in human behavior toward the cats between the different historic period/sex classes and, therefore, prove behavior that would lead us to believe they accept preferences. Women and girls tend to collaborate with cats on the floor while men frequently do this from a seated position. Children, especially boys, tend to arroyo a cat quickly and direct, and are often start rejected by the animal for this. Adults usually telephone call the cat first and allow the true cat to practice the approaching. Women speak with their cats more oftentimes than men and the cats also vocalize more frequently with them than with men. Women are too more frequently approached past cats and the animals are generally more willing to cooperate with them than with men. Retired persons show more tolerance or acceptance of the cat's natural beliefs and desire less conformity by the cats to their own lifestyles than younger adults. When they interact with their cats, elderly persons do so for longer periods of fourth dimension, often in closer physical contact with the animals, than younger adults, who nevertheless speak more frequently with/to their cats from a distance.

Differences in true cat behavior related to the animals' sexual activity have been sought but rarely found, although nearly studies (likewise as virtually cats kept past individual persons) were of neutered or spayed animals in by studies. However, Kotrschal et al. (pers. advice) have found a first indication of differences betwixt male and female cats. Individual differences in behavior between cats are always statistically significant and these take had to be accounted for in any assay of other parameters postulated to touch on their behavior. Notwithstanding, various personality types, e.g. cats that prefer playing while others prefer the physical contact of stroking, have been discovered (also statistically) among domestic non-purebred animals. Astonishingly, very few observational studies have been published comparing the behavior of pure breed cats. Turner (1995b, 2000b) compared Siamese, Persian/Longhair, and non-purebred cats in their interactions with humans. Differences relevant to potential therapy work with cats were found. Not-observational studies comparing the grapheme traits of many dissimilar dog breeds have been conducted with highly pregnant results for AAA/AAT piece of work (Hart, 1995; Hart and Hart, 1985, 1988). But ethological studies along the same lines are defective with the possible exception of Schalke and colleagues (2005). Withal, Prato-Previde et al. (2006) have observed gender differences in owners interacting with their pet dogs.

What have studies that combine observational data with indirect, subjective assessments of true cat traits and human relationship quality by their owners provided? Turner and Stammbach-Geering (1990) and Turner (1991) found correlations that aid to explain the widespread popularity of cats, also as ane cardinal to a harmonious relationship between a person and his or her true cat: Cats are considered past their owners to exist either very contained and unlike humans (who consider themselves, in this instance, "dependent") or they are dependent and human-like. Some people appreciate the independent nature of the cat; others, their presumed "dependency" on human care. The authors also discovered that the more willing the owner is to fulfill the cat'south interactional wishes, the more than willing the cat is to reciprocate at other times. Merely the true cat also accepts a lower willingness on the part of the owner and adapts its own willingness to collaborate to that. This "meshing" of interactional goals is one indication of relationship quality.

More recently, Stammbach and Turner (1999) and Kannchen and Turner (1998; come across also Turner, 2002) combined psychological assessment tools measuring man social support levels, self-perceived emotional support from the cat and attachment to the cat with direct observations of interactions between women and their cats. Emotional attachment to the cat was negatively correlated with the corporeality of homo social support the owner could count on and positively correlated with the self-estimated amount of emotional back up provided by the true cat. Zipper to the cat was establish to exist the more predominant factor governing interactional behavior rather than corporeality of human back up available to the owner.

Most recently, Rieger and Turner (1999), Turner and Rieger (2001) and Turner et al. (2003) have used psychological tools and ethological observations to assess how momentary moods, in detail depressiveness, affect the behavior of singly living persons toward their cats, respectively, persons with a spouse. They emphasized that these persons, who had volunteered for the studies, were not necessarily clinically depressive. They discovered that the more a person was depressed, the fewer "intentions" to collaborate were shown. Still, the more a person was depressed, the more he or she direct started an interaction. This ways that depressed persons had an initial inhibition to initiate that was compensated by the presence of the cat. People who became less depressed afterwards ii hours owned cats that were more than willing to comply with the humans' intents, than those of people whose "depressiveness" had not changed or became worse. When not interacting, the cat reacted the same style to all moods of the humans. This neutral attitude possibly makes the cat an bonny pacemaker against an inhibition to initiate. Within an interaction the cats were indeed affected by the mood: they showed more head and flank rubbing toward depressive persons. But apparently only the willingness of the cat to comply was responsible for reducing depressiveness. The authors interpreted their results after a model of intraspecific communication between human couples, in which one partner is clinically depressed (Hell, 1994) and found hitting similarities. The potential of these findings for AAT sessions involving cats is obvious.

While Rieger and Turner (1999) and Turner and Rieger (2001) found that cats were successful in improving "negative" moods, simply not increasing already "skillful moods" amidst single persons, Turner and colleagues (2003) plant that a spouse was indeed capable of the latter. Nevertheless, they too found that a companion true cat was most equally successful equally a spouse at improving negative moods.

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Emergency Psychiatric Care of Survivors of Natural Disasters and Terrorism

Hani R. Khouzam MD, MPH, FAPA , in Handbook of Emergency Psychiatry, 2007

Therapeutic Aspects of the Human and Pet Bond

The intricate relationship between humans and their pets needs to be considered every bit an important component in healing the trauma associated with natural disasters and terrorism. The reestablishment of the human-animate being bail is a critical element in promoting resilience of individuals and communities. The survivors may forego rescue efforts in order to find and save their pets. On the other manus, search and rescue teams with canine units confront physical and emotional demands that affect both handler and animal. A familiarity with these issues is important for psychiatrists and other mental health professionals who are providing relief in disaster situations.

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Fauna abuse and developmental psychopathology

Frank R. Ascione , ... Philip Tedeschi , in Handbook on Creature-Assisted Therapy (Third Edition), 2010

18.5 Determination

Animal-assisted therapy is a newly evolving field that holds bang-up promise and potential for many populations. While research on this field of study is limited, existing findings show that the human/animal bond is a powerful forcefulness that has the capacity to effect meaningful modify when used accordingly. Animate being cruelty and calumniating behaviors are also a feature of the human/beast connectedness. These abuse behaviors are found pathologically embedded with other human being cruelty issues. The new generation of social workers must recognize both sides of the homo/animal connection, protecting both people and animals but also encounter the potential to utilize animals in therapeutic settings and channel these interventions to help our clients connect with themselves, each other, and the world at large. Such tasks require great effort, strong patience, and diligent documentation in our efforts to establish evidence-based practices.

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